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攻勢現實主義

維基百科,自由的百科全書
約翰·米爾斯海默

攻勢現實主義(英語:offensive realism),又譯為「進攻性現實主義」,是美國政治學家約翰·米爾斯海默[1]首先提出的新現實主義學派中之理論結構,認為國際體系中的無政府狀態要對國際政治中國家層面的侵略性行為負責。它從根本上不同於肯尼思·沃爾茲提出的守勢現實主義。這個理論主張大國的權力最大化,通過卸責英語Buck passing平衡英語Balancing (international relations)策略,最終達到主宰國際體系。該理論為研究和理解國際關係做出了重要貢獻。

理論起源

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攻勢現實主義是屬於國際關係現實主義學派的一個重要理論,其中的代表性人物包括羅伯特·吉爾平蘭德爾·施韋勒、樂伯斯(Eric J. Labs)和法里德·扎卡利亞[2][3][4],他們都以各自的觀點提出了這個理論。然而到目前為止,公認的對攻勢現實主義詮釋最準確完整的是約翰·米爾斯海默,他在他的著作《大國政治的悲劇》一書中充分詮釋了這個理論。[5]雖然米爾斯海默重申其的攻勢現實主義理論是以古典現實主義英語Classical realism (international relations)者所闡述的某些假設為基礎,但其將實證主義作為其研究手法,以國際政治中國家的行為為研究基礎,將其作為該理論的中心,從而又和傳統的現實主義理論大有不同。[6][7][8]也囙此,他的攻勢現實主義又和結構現實主義的一些其他支論相似,如守勢現實主義。[9]

主要內容

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該理論基於五個核心假設,類似於肯尼思·沃爾茲的守勢現實主義的核心假設。其為[10][11]

  1. 大國是世界政治的主要角色,國際體系是無政府狀態的
  2. 所有強權都擁有進攻性的軍事實力
  3. 各國永遠無法確定其他國家的意圖
  4. 各國都以生存為主要目標
  5. 國家是理性的行為者,能夠提出最大化其生存前景的合理戰略

與守勢現實主義一樣,攻勢現實主義主張國際體系為無政府狀態,在這個體系中,理性大國始終無法確定其他國家的意圖,並且能夠發動軍事進攻,以求生存。[12][13]儘管米爾斯海默最初是從類似主張中發展而來的,但其攻勢現實主義對國際政治中的大國行為提出了截然不同的預測。[14][15]其主要是在權力積累方面和守勢現實主義相背,認為國家需要不停地採取舉措確保國家的安全並建立戰略維持國家保證自身安全的能力。最終,米爾斯海默的攻勢現實主義繪製了一幅更加悲觀的國際政治圖景,其特點是危險的國家間競爭可能導致衝突和戰爭。[16][17]

現狀與國家權力最大化

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約翰·米爾斯海默進攻性現實主義旨在糾正肯尼斯·華爾茲防禦性現實主義的「現狀偏見」。[18][19]雖然這兩種新現實主義變體都認為,國家主要關心的是最大限度地提高自身的安全,但他們在這一過程中所需的權力數量上存在分歧。與防禦性現實主義相反,根據防禦性現實主義,國家是維持現狀的大國,只尋求通過維持普遍的權力平衡來維持各自在國際體系中的地位,[20][21]進攻性現實主義聲稱,國家實際上是權力最大化的修正主義者,懷有侵略意圖。事實上,在進攻性現實主義中,國際體系為大國提供了強有力的動機,促使它們採取進攻性行動,以加強其安全並確保其生存。[21][22]

事實上,以無政府狀態為特徵的國際體系(缺乏一個能夠執行規則和懲罰侵略者的中央當局)以及國家意圖和現有進攻性軍事能力的不確定性,導致各國不斷相互恐懼,並訴諸自助(self-help)機制來維持生存為了減輕彼此對侵略的恐懼,各國總是尋求最大限度地發揮其在物質能力方面的相對力量[23]。正如米爾斯海默所說:「他們尋找機會,通過以潛在對手為代價獲得額外的權力增量來改變權力平衡」[24]因為「一個國家比其他國家擁有的軍事優勢越大,越是安全」,[25]「國家尋求增加軍事力量,損害體系內其他國家的利益,霸權是國家體系中唯一的大國,是他們的最終目標。」[26]

約翰·米爾斯海默將這一觀點概括如下:「大國認識到,確保其安全的最佳途徑是現在就實現霸權,從而消除另一大國挑戰的任何可能性。只有一個被誤導的國家才會放棄在這個體系中成為霸權的機會,因為它認為自己已經擁有足夠的權力來生存。」[27]因此,像米爾斯海默這樣的進攻性新現實主義者認為,一個國家提高其相對權力以實現霸權的最佳戰略是依靠進攻性戰術。如果這些大國採取侵略行動是合理的,它們就可能奉行擴張主義政策,這將使它們更接近霸權。由於權力跨洋投射和報復勢力的制約,全球霸權幾乎不可能實現,各國希望達到的最佳結局狀態是,一個地區霸主統治自己的地理區域。[28][29]這種對權力的不懈追求,內在地產生了一種「持續的安全競爭,戰爭的可能性總是存在」的背景下,[30]只有當地區霸權獲得時,大國才會成為現狀國家。

參見

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參考文獻

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  1. ^ Toft, Peter. John J. Mearsheimer: an offensive realist between geopolitics and power. Journal of International Relations and Development (Palgrave Macmillan). December 2005, 8 (4): 381–408 [2018-02-14]. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jird.1800065. (原始內容存檔於2018-06-13). 
  2. ^ Feng, Liu; Ruizhuan, Zhang. The typologies of realism. The Chinese Journal of International Politics (Oxford Journals). Summer 2006, 1 (1): 124 and 126. doi:10.1093/cjip/pol006. 
  3. ^ Taliaferro, Jeffrey W. Security seeking under anarchy: defensive realism revisited. International Security (MIT Press). Winter 2000–2001, 25 (3): 128–129 and 134. JSTOR 2626708. doi:10.1162/016228800560543. 
  4. ^ Gerald Geunwook Lee, "To Be Long or Not to Be Long–That is the Question: The Contradiction of Time-Horizon in Offensive Realism", Security Studies 12:2 (2003): 196.
  5. ^ John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2001).
  6. ^ Glenn H. Snyder, "Mearsheimer's World—Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security: A Review Essay", International Security 27:1 (2002): 151.
  7. ^ Feng and Zheng, Typologies of Realism, 113–114.
  8. ^ Kaplan, Robert D. Why John J. Mearsheimer Is Right (About Some Things). The Atlantic Magazine. 2012 [2018-02-14]. (原始內容存檔於2012-07-20). 
  9. ^ Kenneth N. Waltz, "Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory", Journal of International Affairs 44:1 (1990): 34.
  10. ^ Mearsheimer, J. (2005). Structural Realism, in T. Dunne, M. Kurki & S. Smith, International Relations Theory: Discipline and Diversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  11. ^ Mearsheimer, John J. "The false promise of international institutions." International Security 19, no. 3 (1994): 5–49.
  12. ^ Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 30–31.
  13. ^ Eric J. Labs, "Beyond Victory: Offensive Realism and the Expansion of War Aims", Security Studies 6:4 (1997): 7–8.
  14. ^ Shiping Tang, "From Offensive to Defensive Realism: A Social Evolutionary Interpretation of China's Security Strategy", 148–149, in China's Ascent: Power, Security, and the Future of International Politics, edited by Robert Ross and Zhu Feng. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008).
  15. ^ Taliaferro, Security Seeking, 134.
  16. ^ Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 32–33.
  17. ^ Snyder, Mearsheimer's World, 153.
  18. ^ Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 20.
  19. ^ Snyder, Mearsheimer's World,157–158.
  20. ^ Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1979): 126.
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 21.
  22. ^ ; Sten Rynning and Jens Ringsmose, "Why Are Revisionist States Revisionist? Reviving Classical Realism as an Approach to Understanding International Change", International Politics 45 (2008): 26.
  23. ^ John J. Mearsheimer, "China's Unpeaceful Rise", Current History 105: 690 (2006): 160.
  24. ^ Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 34.
  25. ^ John J. Mearsheimer, "The False Promise of International Institutions", International Security 19:3 (1994–1995): 11–12.
  26. ^ Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 21 and 29.
  27. ^ Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 35.
  28. ^ Mearsheimer, China's Unpeaceful Rise, 160.
  29. ^ Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 141.
  30. ^ Mearsheimer, The False Promise, 12.

參考書目

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  • Feng, Liu; Ruizhuan, Zhang. The typologies of realism. The Chinese Journal of International Politics (Oxford Journals). Summer 2006, 1 (1): 109–134. doi:10.1093/cjip/pol006. 
  • Hendrickson, David C. "The Lion and the Lamb: Realism and Liberalism Reconsidered." World Policy Journal 20:1 (2003): 93–102.
  • Kaplan, Robert D. Why John J. Mearsheimer Is Right (About Some Things). The Atlantic Magazine. 2012 [2018-02-14]. (原始內容存檔於2012-07-20). 
  • Kirshner, Jonathan. "The Tragedy of Offensive Realism: Classical Realism and the Rise of China." European Journal of International Relations 18:1 (2012): 53–75.
  • Labs, Eric. "Beyond Victory: Offensive Realism and the Expansion of War Aims." Security Studies 6:4 (1997): 1–49.
  • Lake, David A. "Two Cheers for Bargaining Theory: Assessing Rationalist Explanations of the Iraq War." International Security 35:3 (2010/11): 7–52.
  • Layne, Christopher. "The Poster Child for Offensive Realism: America as a Global Hegemon." Security Studies 12:2 (2002/2003): 120–163.頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館
  • Lee, Gerald Geunwook. "To be Long or Not to Be Long—That is the Question: The Contradiction of Time-Horizon in Offensive Realism." Security Studies 12:2 (2002/2003): 196–217.
  • Levy, Jack S. and William R. Thompson. "Balancing on Land and at Sea: Do States Ally Against the Leading Global Power?" International Security 35:1 (2010): 7–43.
  • Lieber, Keir A. and Gerard Alexander. "Waiting for Balancing Why the World Is Not Pushing Back." International Security 30:1 (2005): 109–139.
  • Lim, Y.-H. China's Naval Power, Surrey, New York, Ashgate, 2014, 234 p. (ISBN 9781409451846).
  • Mearsheimer, John J. "The False Promise of International Institutions." International Security 19:3 (1994–1995): 5–49.
  • Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2001.
  • Mearsheimer, John J. "China's Unpeaceful Rise." Current History 105:690 (2006): 160–162.
  • Pashakhanlou, Arash Heydarian. "Back to the Drawing Board: A Critique of Offensive Realism." International Relations 27:202 (2013): 202–225.
  • Pashakhanlou, Arash Heydarian. "Waltz, Mearsheimer and the Post-Cold War World: The Rise of America and the Fall of Structural Realism", International Politics 51:3 (2014): 295–315.
  • Rynning, Sten and Jens Ringsmose. "Why Are Revisionist States Revisionist? Reviving Classical Realism as an Approach to Understanding International Change." International Politics 45 (2008): 19–39.
  • Shiping Tang. "From Offensive to Defensive Realism: A Social Evolutionary Interpretation of China's Security Strategy." In China's Ascent: Power, Security, and the Future of International Politics, edited by Robert Ross and Zhu Feng, 141–162. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008.
  • Snyder, Glenn H. "Mearsheimer's World—Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security: A Review Essay." International Security 27:1 (2002): 149–173.
  • Taliaferro, Jeffrey W. Security seeking under anarchy: defensive realism revisited. International Security (MIT Press). Winter 2000–2001, 25 (3): 128–161. JSTOR 2626708. doi:10.1162/016228800560543. 
  • Toft, Peter. John J. Mearsheimer: an offensive realist between geopolitics and power. Journal of International Relations and Development (Palgrave Macmillan). December 2005, 8 (4): 381–408 [2018-02-14]. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jird.1800065. (原始內容存檔於2018-06-13). 
  • Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1979).
  • Waltz, Kenneth N. "Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory." Journal of International Affairs 44:1 (1990): 21–37.
  • Waltz, Kenneth N. "International Politics Is Not Foreign Policy." Security Studies 6:1 (1996): 54–57.
  • Wang, Yuan-Kang. "Offensive Realism and the Rise of China." Issues & Studies 40:1 (2004): 173–201.

擴展閱讀

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  • Robert Giplin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
  • Randall L. Schweller, "Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In", International Security 19 :1 (1994): 72–107.
  • Fareed Zarkaria, From Wealth to Power: the Unusual Origins of America's World Role (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).