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大英博物館所藏的水晶頭骨

水晶頭骨是一些由透明或乳白色石英岩雕刻成的人類頭骨,在藝術史上被稱為水晶岩(rock crystal), 發現者聲稱其為前哥倫布時期中美洲文物。 但是沒有科學研究證明任何水晶頭骨製造於前哥倫布時期。研究的結果表示水晶頭骨最早在19世紀雕刻, 幾乎可以肯定為歐洲製造。[1] 一些文學作品中提到了水晶頭骨神秘力量，但是並不存在於美洲原住民的傳說中[2]

水晶頭骨常常在科幻或奇幻作品中被描繪成超自然力量的象徵[3] [4][5]

水晶頭骨收集品[編輯]

研究人員認為19世紀中葉出現的小型水晶頭骨與19世紀末的實物尺寸水晶頭骨有區別，研究人員認為，引起極大關注的大型的水晶頭骨是在歐洲偽造的。

仿造前哥倫布時期文物的交易在19世紀末持續增長，以至於在1886年史密森尼學會考古學家威廉·亨利·霍爾姆斯為科學雜誌寫了一篇文章。[6] 博物館很早就收購水晶頭骨,但是歐仁·博班是與19世紀水晶頭骨收藏品關係最密切的人. 他包括三顆水晶頭骨在內的大部分收藏品, 買給了阿爾封斯·皮那特。

對水晶頭骨起源的研究[編輯]

大部分水晶頭骨聲稱是前哥倫布時期的文物, 通常認為是阿茲特克或瑪雅文明的文物。但是博物館館藏頭骨沒有考古發掘紀錄[7] 1967年、1996年和2004年在大英博物館對幾顆水晶頭骨進行的研究表示雕刻牙齒的鋸齒創線條 (與Mitchell-Hedges skull不同，這三尊頭骨沒有下頜) 使用了於19世紀末發展的珠寶 旋轉打磨工具, 對所謂前哥倫布時期文物的說法產生了質疑[8]在對晶體類型的檢驗中發現了巴西和馬達加斯加特有的綠泥石，因此無法確定是前哥倫布時期中美洲文物。這項研究的結果認為水晶頭骨是19世紀末在德國雕刻的，很可能是在19世紀末以進口巴西綠泥石而聞名的伊達爾-奧伯施泰因的作坊中雕刻的。[9]

已經確定，無論是大英博物館和巴黎人類博物館的水晶頭骨[10]水晶頭骨原本由巴黎古董商Eugène Boban出售。[11]大英博物館從紐約蒂芙尼公司得到水晶頭骨,而人類博物館的水晶頭骨由民族志研究者阿爾封斯·皮那特捐獻。他在博班處購得此物。

1992年， 史密森尼學會對一匿名人士宣稱在1960年購於墨西哥城的水晶頭骨進行了研究。持有者宣稱這尊頭骨是阿茲特克文明的遺物，研究的結果表明這尊頭骨在最近幾年製成。根據史密森尼學會的研究，博班從德國獲得了這些頭骨，然後和大英博物館取得了聯繫。[12]

《考古科學》雜誌在2008年5月刊登了一個關於大英博物館和史密森尼學會所藏頭骨的詳細研究。[13]英國和美國研究人員利用電子顯微鏡和X射線晶體學分析發現，大英博物館的頭骨是用如剛玉或金剛石作為磨料雕刻而成，在雕刻中還使用了金屬的旋轉打磨工具。史密尼森學會的水晶頭骨使用了碳化硅作為磨料, 這種磨料是現代工業的產品。[14]因為碳化硅在1890年才被人工合成，因此研究人員得到結論，「應是20世紀50年代後製作的」.[15]

小型頭骨的投機買賣[編輯]

沒有一尊水晶頭骨有考古發掘紀錄。一個相似的例子是黑曜石鏡子，廣泛流傳的阿茲特克禮器。ritual objects widely depicted in Aztec art. Although a few surviving obsidian mirrors come from archaeological excavations,[16] none of the Aztec-style obsidian mirrors are so documented. Yet most authorities on Aztec material culture consider the Aztec-style obsidian mirrors as authentic pre-Columbian objects.[17] Archaeologist Michael E. Smith reports a non peer-reviewed find of a small crystal skull at an Aztec site in the Valley of Mexico.[18] Crystal skulls have been described as "A fascinating example of artifacts that have made their way into museums with no scientific evidence to prove their rumored pre-Columbian origins.[19] Until any crystal skulls are reported in peer-reviewed papers describing their excavation, Occam's Razor suggests that all of them are fabrications."

Individual skulls[編輯]

Mitchell-Hedges skull[編輯]

Perhaps the most famous and enigmatic skull was allegedly discovered in 1924 by Anna Le Guillon Mitchell-Hedges, adopted daughter of British adventurer and popularist author F.A. Mitchell-Hedges. It is the subject of a video documentary made in 1990, Crystal Skull of Labaantun.[20] It has been noted upon examination by Smithsonian researchers to be "very nearly a replica of the British Museum skull--almost exactly the same shape, but with more detailed modeling of the eyes and the teeth."[21]

Anna Hedges claimed that she found the skull buried under a collapsed altar inside a temple in Lubaantun, in British Honduras, now Belize.[22] As far as can be ascertained, F.A. Mitchell-Hedges himself made no mention of the alleged discovery in any of his writings on Lubaantun. Also, others present at the time of the excavation have not been documented as noting either the skull's discovery or Anna's presence at the dig.[23]

In a 1970 letter, Anna also stated that she was "told by the few remaining Maya, that the skull was used by the high priest to will death".[24] The artifact is sometimes referred to as "The Skull of Doom" as Mitchell-Hedges claimed it could be used to will death (see below). An alternative explanation [誰？] is a play on 'Skull of Dunn' (Dunn being an associate of Mitchell-Hedges)[來源請求]. Anna Mitchell-Hedges toured with the skull from 1967 exhibiting it on a pay-per-view basis,[25] and she continued to give interviews about the artifact until her death in 2007.

The skull is made from a block of clear quartz about the size of a small human cranium, measuring some 5 inches (13 cm) high, 7 inches (18 cm) long and 5 inches wide. The lower jaw is detached. In the early 1970s it came under the temporary care of freelance art restorer Frank Dorland, who claimed upon inspecting it that it had been "carved" with total disregard to the natural crystal axes without the use of metal tools. Dorland reported being unable to find any tell-tale scratch marks, except for traces of mechanical grinding on the teeth, and he speculated that it was first chiseled into rough form, probably using diamonds, and the finer shaping, grinding and polishing was achieved through the use of sand over a period of 150 to 300 years. He said it could be up to 12,000 years old. Although various claims have been made over the years regarding the skull's physical properties, such as an allegedly constant temperature of 70°F (21°C), Dorland reported that there was no difference in properties between it and other natural quartz crystals.[26]

While in Dorland's care the skull came to the attention of writer Richard Garvin, at the time working at an advertising agency where he supervised Hewlett-Packard's advertising account. Garvin made arrangements for the skull to be examined at HP's crystal labs at Santa Clara, where it was subjected to several tests. The labs determined only that it was not a composite (as Dorland had supposed), but that it was fashioned from a single crystal of quartz.[27] The lab test also established that the lower jaw had been fashioned from the same left-handed growing crystal as the rest of the skull.[28] No investigation was made by HP as to its method of manufacture or dating.[29]

As well as the traces of mechanical grinding on the teeth noted by Dorland,[30] Mayanist archaeologist Norman Hammond reported that the holes (presumed to be intended for support pegs) showed signs of being made by drilling with metal.[31] Anna Mitchell-Hedges refused subsequent requests to submit the skull for further scientific testing.[32]

F. A. Mitchell-Hedges mentioned the skull only briefly in the first edition of his autobiography, Danger My Ally (1954), without specifying where or by whom it was found.[33] He merely claimed that "it is at least 3,600 years old and according to legend it was used by the High Priest of the Maya when he was performing esoteric rites. It is said that when he willed death with the help of the skull, death invariably followed".[34] All subsequent editions of Danger My Ally omitted mention of the skull entirely.[32]

Eugène Boban, main French dealer in pre-Columbian artifacts during the second half of the 19th century and probable source of many famous skulls

The earliest published reference to the skull is the July 1936 issue of the British anthropological journal Man, where it is described as being in the possession of Mr. Sydney Burney, a London art dealer who is said to have owned it since 1933.[35] No mention was made of Mitchell-Hedges. There is documentary evidence that Mitchell-Hedges bought it from Burney in 1944.[32] The skull was in the custody of Anna Mitchell-Hedges, the adopted daughter of Frederick. She steadfastly refused to let it be examined by experts (making very doubtful the claim that it was reported on by R. Stansmore Nutting in 1962). Somewhere between 1988–1990 Anna Mitchell-Hedges toured with the skull.

In her last eight years, Anna Mitchell-Hedges lived in Chesterton, Indiana, with Bill Homann, whom she married in 2002. She died on April 11, 2007. Since that time the Mitchell-Hedges Skull has been in the custody of Bill Homann. In April 2009, Five, a television channel, took the story and revealed that the Mitchell-Hedges Skull, recently tested under a special microscope in the Smithsonian Institution, had been manufactured with tools that Aztecs and Mayans simply did not have. Like the other skulls, this one is a fabrication dating from the second half of the 19th century. Bill Homann however continues to believe in its mystical properties.[36]

British Museum skull[編輯]

The crystal skull of the British Museum first appeared in 1881, in the shop of the Paris antiquarian, Eugène Boban. Its origin was not stated in his catalog of the time. He is said to have tried to sell it to Mexico's national museum as an Aztec artifact, but was unsuccessful. Boban later moved his business to New York City, where the skull was sold to George H. Sisson. It was exhibited at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in New York City in 1887 by George F. Kunz.[37] It was sold at auction, and bought by Tiffany and Co., who later sold it at cost to the British Museum in 1897.[38] This skull is very similar to the Mitchell-Hedges skull, although it is less detailed and does not have a movable lower jaw.[39]

The British Museum catalogs the skull's provenance as "probably European, 19th century AD"[40] and describes it as "not an authentic pre-Columbian artefact".[41] It has been established that this skull was made with modern tools, and that it is not authentic.[42]

Paris skull[編輯]

Crystal skull at the Musée du quai Branly, Paris

The largest of the three skulls sold by Eugène Boban to Alphonse Pinart (sometimes called the Paris Skull), about 10 cm（4英寸） high, has a hole drilled vertically through its center.[43] It is part of a collection held at the Musée du Quai Branly, and was subjected to scientific tests carried out in 2007–08 by France's national Centre de recherche et de restauration des musées de France (Centre for Research and Restoration of the Museums in France, or C2RMF). After a series of analyses carried out over three months, C2RMF engineers concluded that it was "certainly not pre-Columbian, it shows traces of polishing and abrasion by modern tools."[44] Particle accelerator tests also revealed occluded traces of water that were dated to the 19th century, and the Quai Branly released a statement that the tests "seem to indicate that it was made late in the 19th century."[45]

In 2009 the C2RMF researchers published results of further investigations to establish when the Paris skull had been carved. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis indicated the use of lapidary machine tools in its carving. The results of a new dating technique known as quartz hydration dating (QHD) demonstrated that the Paris skull had been carved later than a reference quartz specimen artefact, known to have been cut in 1740. The researchers conclude that the SEM and QHD results combined with the skull's known provenance indicate it was carved in the 18th or 19th century.[46]

Smithsonian Skull[編輯]

The Smithsonian skull was mailed to the Smithsonian anonymously in 1992, and was claimed to be an Aztec object by its donor and was purportedly from the collection of Porfirio Diaz. It is the largest of the skulls, weighing 31 pounds and is 15 inches high. It was carved using carborundum, a modern abrasive. It has been displayed as a fake at the National Museum of Natural History.[47]

Paranormal claims and spiritual associations[編輯]

Some believers in the paranormal claim that crystal skulls can produce a variety of miracles. Ann Mitchell-Hedges claimed that the skull she allegedly discovered could cause visions, cure cancer, that she once used its magical properties to kill a man, and that in another instance, she saw in it a premonition of the John F. Kennedy assassination.[48] In the 1931 play The Satin Slipper, by Paul Claudel, King Philip II of Spain uses "a death's head made from a single piece of rock crystal," lit by "a ray of the setting sun," to see the defeat of his Armada in its attack on England (day 4, scene 4, pp. 243-44).[49]

Claims of the healing and supernatural powers of crystal skulls have no support in the scientific community, which has found no evidence of any unusual phenomena associated with the skulls nor any reason for further investigation, other than the confirmation of their provenance and method of manufacture.[50]

Another novel and historically unfounded speculation ties in the legend of the crystal skulls with the completion of the current Maya calendar b'ak'tun-cycle on December 21, 2012, claiming the re-uniting of the thirteen mystical skulls will forestall a catastrophe allegedly predicted or implied by the ending of this calendar. An airing of this claim appeared (among an assortment of others made) in The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls,[51] a 2008 program produced for the Sci Fi Channel in May and shown on Discovery Channel Canada in June. Interviewees included Richard Hoagland, who attempted to link the skulls and the Maya to life on Mars, and David Hatcher Childress, proponent of lost Atlantean civilizations and anti-gravity claims.

Crystal skulls are also referenced by author Drunvalo Melchizedek in his book Serpent of Light.[52] He writes that he came across indigenous Mayan descendants in possession of crystal skulls at ceremonies at temples in the Yucatan, which he writes contained souls of ancient Mayans who had entered the skulls to await the time when their ancient knowledge would once again be required. The book is a log of the authors experiences, which are related in a manner requiring suspension of judgment.

The alleged associations and origins of crystal skull mythology in Native American spiritual lore, as advanced by neoshamanic writers such as Jamie Sams, are similarly discounted.[53] Instead, as Philip Jenkins notes, crystal skull mythology may be traced back to the "baroque legends" initially spread by F.A. Mitchell-Hedges, and then afterwards taken up:

By the 1970s, the crystal skulls [had] entered New Age mythology as potent relics of ancient Atlantis, and they even acquired a canonical number: there were exactly thirteen skulls.
None of this would have anything to do with North American Indian matters, if the skulls had not attracted the attention of some of the most active New Age writers.[54]

See also[編輯]

References[編輯]

Notes[編輯]

  1. ^ British Museum (n.d.-b), Jenkins (2004, p.217), Sax et al. (2008), Smith (2005), Walsh (1997; 2008)
  2. ^ Aldred (2000, passim.); Jenkins (2004, pp.218–219).
  3. ^ 例如Stargate SG-1 (season 3)65集, "水晶頭骨".
  4. ^ 參考 Max McCoy 的印第安那瓊斯系列小說 (1995, 1996, 1997, 1999).
  5. ^ 例如電視遊戲Legend of the Crystal Skull、Illusion of Gaia.
  6. ^ "'The Trade in Spurious Mexican Antiquities"' for Science，Holmes (1886)
  7. ^ Walsh (2008)
  8. ^ Craddock (2009, p.415)
  9. ^ British Museum (n.d.-b); Craddock (2009, p.415).
  10. ^ 巴黎人類博物館的水晶頭骨大約是真實頭骨的一半大
  11. ^ 參看"The mystery of the British Museum's crystal skull is solved. It's a fake", The Independent (Connor 2005). 同樣參考大英博物館對水晶頭骨的公開聲明(the Museum's issued public statement on its crystal skull) (British Museum n.d.-c).
  12. ^ 參見史密森尼學會人類學家簡·沃爾什與大英博物館的材料學家瑪格麗特·薩克斯的聯合調查報告，該報告證明水晶頭骨是19世紀的贗品, 見 Smith (2005). 同樣參見Walsh (1997).
  13. ^ Sax et al. (2008)
  14. ^ 碳化硅於1893年第一次在自然界的隕石中發現，在自然界中只有很小的儲量。 參見See summary of the discovery and history of silicon carbide in Kelly (n.d.)
  15. ^ 參見在Rincon中的報告 (2008), 以及Sax et al.關於這項研究的內容 (2008).
  16. ^ Such as at Teotihuacan; see Taube (1992).
  17. ^ See for eg Olivier (2003).
  18. ^ Michael E. Smith, "Aztec Crystal Skulls," Publishing Archaeology Blog
  19. ^ Smithsonian puts its fake- crystal skull- on display. San Francisco Chronicle. 2008, (July 18) [2008-09-21]. 
  20. ^ Crystal Skull of Labaantun (1990). [2008-07-20]. 
  21. ^ Walsh (2008). See also the 1936 debate on its resemblance to the British Museum skull, in Digby (1936) and Morant (1936), passim.
  22. ^ See Garvin (1973, caption to photo 25); also Nickell (2007, p.67).
  23. ^ Nickell (2007, pp.68–69)
  24. ^ Garvin (1973, p.93)
  25. ^ Hammond (2008)
  26. ^ Dorland, in a May 1983 letter to Joe Nickell, cited in Nickell (2007, p.70).
  27. ^ See Garvin (1973, pp.75–76), also Hewlett-Packard (1971, p.9). The test conducted involved immersing the skull in a liquid (Benzyl alcohol) with the same diffraction coefficient and viewing it under polarized light.
  28. ^ Garvin (1973, pp.75–76); Hewlett-Packard (1971, p.9).
  29. ^ Hewlett-Packard (1971, p.10).
  30. ^ Garvin (1973, p.84); also cited in Nickell (2007, p.70).
  31. ^ Hammond, in a May 1983 letter to Nickell, cited in Nickell (2007, p.70). See also Hammond's recounting of his meeting with Anna Mitchell-Hedges and the skull in an article written for The Times, in Hammond (2008).
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Nickell (2007, p.69)
  33. ^ See Mitchell-Hedges (1954, pp.240–243); also description of same in the chapter "Riddle of the Crystal Skulls", in Nickell (2007, pp.67–73).
  34. ^ Mitchell-Hedges' quote, as reproduced in Nickell (2007, p.67).
  35. ^ See Morant (1936, p.105), and comments in Digby (1936). See also discussion of the prior ownership in Nickell (2007, p.69).
  36. ^ Stelzer, C.D. The kingdom of the crystal skull. Illinois Times. 2008-06-12 [2009-02-08]. 
  37. ^ A Great Labor Problem. It Receives Attention from the Scientists. They devote attention, too, to a beautiful adze and a mysterious crystal skull.. New York Times. 1887, (August 13) [2008-07-17]. 
  38. ^ British Museum (n.d.-a, n.d.-b)
  39. ^ Digby (1936)
  40. ^ British Museum (n.d.-a)
  41. ^ British Museum (n.d.-c). See also articles on the investigations which established it to be a fake, in Connor (2005), Jury (2005), Smith (2005), and Walsh (1997, 2008).
  42. ^ Rincon (2008), Sax et al. (2008)
  43. ^ Kunz (1890, pp.285–286), see description in "Ch. XIV: Mexico & Central America"
  44. ^ Quote reported by Agence France-Presse, see Rosemberg (2008).
  45. ^ Quote reported by Agence France-Presse, see Rosemberg (2008). See also Walsh (2008).
  46. ^ Calligaro et al. (2009, abstract)
  47. ^ Smithsonian Puts Mysterious Crystal Skull on Display. [7-10-2008]. 
  48. ^ Various authors. "The Crystal Skulls" Skeptic magazine. Vol. 14, No. 2. 2008. Page 89.
  49. ^ Claudel, Paul. The Satin Slipper. Trans. John O'Connor and Paul Claudel. London: Sheed & Ward, 1931. Originally published as Le Soulier de Satin (Paris: Nouvelle Revue Française).
  50. ^ See Nickell (2007, pp.67–73); Smith (2005); Walsh (1997; 2008).
  51. ^ The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls (television program). New York: Peacock Productions (NBC), in association with the Sci Fi Channel. May 2008 [2008-06-06].  已忽略未知參數|distributor=（建議使用|publisher=） (幫助); 已忽略未知參數|crew= (幫助)
  52. ^ Serpent of Light - Beyond 2012, ISBN 1578634016
  53. ^ See discussion of the various claims put forward by Sams, Kenneth Meadows, Harley Swift Deer Reagan and others concerning crystal skulls, extra-terrestrials, and Native American lore, in Jenkins (2004, pp.215–218).
  54. ^ Quotation from Jenkins (2004, pp.217–218).

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